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he was born in 1941

  • 1 bear

    I noun
    1) Bär, der
    2) (Astron.)

    Great/Little Bear — Großer/Kleiner Bär

    II 1. transitive verb,
    1) (show) tragen [Wappen, Inschrift, Unterschrift]; aufweisen, zeigen [Merkmal, Spuren, Ähnlichkeit, Verwandtschaft]

    bear a resemblance or likeness to somebody — Ähnlichkeit mit jemandem haben

    2) (be known by) tragen, führen [Namen, Titel]
    3)

    bear some/little relation to something — einen gewissen/wenig Bezug zu etwas haben

    4) (poet./formal): (carry) tragen [Waffe, Last]; mit sich führen [Geschenk, Botschaft]

    I was borne along by the fierce current — die starke Strömung trug mich mit [sich]

    5) (endure, tolerate) ertragen [Schmerz, Kummer]; with neg. aushalten [Schmerz]; ausstehen [Geruch, Lärm, Speise]
    6) (sustain) tragen, übernehmen [Verantwortlichkeit, Kosten]; auf sich (Akk.) nehmen [Schuld]; tragen, aushalten [Gewicht]
    7) (be fit for) vertragen

    it does not bear repeating or repetition — das lässt sich unmöglich wiederholen

    bear comparison with something — den od. einen Vergleich mit etwas aushalten

    8) (give birth to) gebären [Kind, Junges]; see also academic.ru/8296/born">born
    9) (yield) tragen [Blumen, Früchte usw.]

    bear fruit — (fig.) Früchte tragen (geh.)

    2. intransitive verb,
    bore, borne
    1)

    bear left — [Person:] sich links halten

    2)

    bring to bear — aufbieten [Kraft, Energie]; ausüben [Druck]

    Phrasal Verbs:
    - bear away
    - bear down
    - bear off
    - bear on
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear upon
    - bear with
    * * *
    I [beə] past tense - bore; verb
    1) ((usually with cannot, could not etc) to put up with or endure: I couldn't bear it if he left.) ertragen
    2) (to be able to support: Will the table bear my weight?)
    3) ((past participle in passive born [bo:n]) to produce (children): She has borne (him) several children; She was born on July 7.) gebären,geboren
    4) (to carry: He was borne shoulder-high after his victory.) tragen
    5) (to have: The cheque bore his signature.) tragen
    6) (to turn or fork: The road bears left here.) führen
    •
    - bearable
    - bearer
    - bearing
    - bearings
    - bear down on
    - bear fruit
    - bear out
    - bear up
    - bear with
    - find/get one's bearings
    - lose one's bearings     II [beə] noun
    (a large heavy animal with thick fur and hooked claws.) der Bär
    * * *
    bear1
    [beəʳ, AM ber]
    I. n
    1. (animal) Bär m
    black/brown \bear Schwarz-/Braunbär m
    she-\bear Bärin f
    to be like a \bear with a sore head [or AM like a real \bear] ( fig fam) ein richtiger Brummbär sein fam
    2. STOCKEX (sb calculatedly selling stocks) Baissier m, Baissespekulant(in) m(f), Bär(in) m(f), Bear m
    covered \bear gedeckter Baissier
    uncovered \bear Baissier m, der seine Position noch nicht glattstellen konnte
    3.
    ▶ it's a \bear to do sth es ist kompliziert, etw zu tun
    II. vi STOCKEX auf Baisse [o à la Baisse] spekulieren
    bear2
    <bore, borne or AM also born>
    [beəʳ, AM ber]
    I. vt
    ▪ to \bear sth etw tragen; ( liter):
    he was borne backwards by a large wave er wurde von einer großen Welle zurückgerissen
    to \bear arms ( form) Waffen tragen
    to \bear gifts ( form) Geschenke mitbringen
    to \bear tidings ( old liter) Neuigkeiten überbringen
    2. (display)
    to \bear a date/an imprint/an inscription ein Datum/einen Aufdruck/eine Aufschrift tragen
    to \bear sb's name jds Namen tragen [o geh führen
    4. (behave)
    ▪ to \bear oneself:
    5. (support)
    to \bear the load/the weight die Last/das Gewicht tragen; ( fig)
    to \bear the cost die Kosten tragen
    6. (endure, shoulder)
    ▪ to \bear sth etw ertragen [o erdulden]
    what might have happened doesn't \bear thinking about man darf gar nicht daran denken, was hätte passieren können
    he said something so awful that it doesn't \bear repeating er sagte so etwas Schreckliches, dass ich es gar nicht wiederholen möchte
    to \bear the blame die Schuld auf sich akk nehmen
    to \bear the [burden of] responsibility die [Last der] Verantwortung tragen
    to \bear one's cross sein Kreuz tragen fig
    to \bear the discomfort/hardship die Unbequemlichkeit/Mühe auf sich akk nehmen
    to \bear the pain/tribulation den Schmerz/Kummer ertragen
    ▪ to not be able to \bear sb/sth jdn/etw nicht ertragen [o ausstehen] können
    ▪ to not be able to \bear the boredom/suspense Langeweile/Spannung nicht aushalten
    ▪ to not be able to \bear jokes/criticism Spaß/Kritik nicht vertragen
    ▪ to not \bear to do sth es nicht ertragen können, etw zu tun
    8. (harbour resentments)
    to \bear sb a grudge einen Groll gegen jdn hegen geh
    to \bear sb ill-feeling auf jdn nicht gut zu sprechen sein
    to not \bear any ill-feeling against sb nichts gegen jdn haben
    to \bear sb ill-will jdm gegenüber nachtragend sein
    to \bear no ill-will keine Feindschaft empfinden
    9. (possess)
    to \bear an [uncanny] likeness [or similarity] to sb [unheimliche] Ähnlichkeit mit jdm haben
    to \bear a [strong] resemblance to sb [große] Ähnlichkeit mit jdm haben, jdm sehr ähnlich sehen
    to \bear the [or a] scar eine Narbe davontragen fig, gezeichnet sein geh
    10. (keep)
    I'll \bear that in mind ich werde das mit berücksichtigen
    to \bear a baby ein Kind gebären [o zur Welt bringen]
    to \bear sb a child jdm ein Kind gebären
    his wife bore him a son seine Frau schenkte ihm einen Sohn
    I was born in April ich bin im April geboren
    to \bear cubs/foals/young ZOOL Welpen/Fohlen/Junge bekommen
    12. AGR, BOT
    to \bear fruit ( also fig) Früchte tragen a. fig; FIN, ECON
    to \bear interest at 8% 8 % Zinsen bringen, mit 8 % verzinst sein
    13.
    to \bear testimony [or witness] Zeugnis ablegen
    to \bear witness to sth von etw dat Zeugnis ablegen, etw bezeugen
    to \bear false witness ( old) falsches Zeugnis ablegen veraltend
    II. vi
    1. (tend)
    to \bear left/right sich akk links/rechts halten
    2. (be patient)
    ▪ to \bear with sb mit jdm Geduld [o Nachsicht] haben
    3. (press) drücken
    to \bear on a lever einen Hebel betätigen
    ▪ to \bear down on [or upon] sb/sth auf jdn/etw zusteuern
    5. (be relevant)
    ▪ to \bear on sth etw betreffen; (have affect on) etw beeinflussen
    6. (put pressure on)
    to bring pressure to \bear on sb/sth Druck m auf jdn/etw ausüben
    * * *
    I [bɛə(r)] pret bore, ptp borne
    1. vt
    1) (= carry) burden, arms tragen; gift, message bei sich tragen, mit sich führen

    to bear away/back — mitnehmen/mit (sich) zurücknehmen; (through the air)

    the music was borne/borne away on the wind (liter) — die Musik wurde vom Wind weiter-/weggetragen

    2) (= show) inscription, signature tragen; mark, traces also, likeness, relation aufweisen, zeigen → witness
    See:
    3) (= be known by) name, title tragen, führen
    4) (= have in heart or mind) love empfinden, in sich (dat) tragen; hatred, grudge also hegen (geh)

    the love/hatred he bore her — die Liebe, die er für sie empfand/der Hass, den er gegen sie hegte (geh) or empfand

    See:
    → mind
    5) (lit, fig: support, sustain) weight, expense, responsibility tragen

    to bear examination/comparison — einer Prüfung/einem Vergleich standhalten

    it doesn't bear thinking about — man darf gar nicht daran denken

    6) (= endure, tolerate) ertragen; (with neg also) ausstehen, leiden; pain aushalten; criticism, joking vertragen; smell, noise etc aushalten, vertragen

    she can't bear being laughed at —

    7) (= produce, yield fruit etc) tragen → interest
    See:
    8) (= give birth to) gebären → born
    See:
    → born
    2. vi
    1)

    (= move) to bear right/left/north — sich rechts/links/nach Norden halten

    2) (fruit tree etc) tragen
    3)

    to bring one's energies/powers of persuasion to bear — seine Energie/Überzeugungskraft aufwenden (on für)

    to bring pressure to bear on sb/sth — Druck auf jdn/etw ausüben

    3. vr
    sich halten

    he bore himself with dignity — er hat Würde gezeigt

    II
    1. n
    1) Bär m; (fig = person) Brummbär m (inf)
    2) (ASTRON)

    the Great/Little Bear — der Große/Kleine Bär or Wagen

    3) (ST EX) Baissespekulant m, Baissier m
    2. vi (ST EX)
    auf Baisse spekulieren
    * * *
    bear1 [beə(r)] prät bore [bɔː(r); US auch ˈbəʊər], obs bare [beə(r)], pperf borne [bɔː(r)n; US auch ˈbəʊərn], bei 4born [bɔː(r)n; US auch ˈbəʊərn]
    A v/t
    1. Lasten etc tragen
    2. fig Kosten, einen Verlust, die Verantwortung, die Folgen etc tragen
    3. Blumen, Früchte, auch Zinsen etc tragen: → fruit A 2, interest A 11 (und andere Verbindungen mit Substantiven)
    4. (pperf borne oder born;
    Letzteres nur in der passiven Bedeutung: geboren [werden], sofern nicht by … von … folgt) zur Welt bringen, gebären:
    a) ein Kind gebären,
    b) ein Kind (unter dem Herzen) tragen;
    the children borne to him by this woman die ihm von dieser Frau geborenen Kinder;
    be born geboren werden;
    he was born in 1941 auch er ist Jahrgang 1941;
    he was born into a rich family er kam als Kind reicher Eltern zur Welt oder auf die Welt;
    I wasn’t born yesterday ich bin doch nicht von gestern;
    there’s one born every minute umg die Dummen werden nicht alle oder weniger; → park A 1, silver spoon
    5. einen Namen, einen Titel, auch Waffen etc tragen, führen:
    bear arms against Krieg führen gegen; → arm2 Bes Redew
    6. ein Amt etc innehaben, ausüben
    7. ein Datum, einen Stempel, ein Zeichen etc tragen, aufweisen:
    bear a proportion to in einem Verhältnis stehen zu; → resemblance
    8. eine Bedeutung etc haben, in sich schließen
    9. ein Gefühl hegen:
    bear sb love jemandem Liebe entgegenbringen; → grudge C, malice 2, will2 A 6
    10. eine Rolle spielen (in bei)
    11. Schmerzen etc ertragen, (er)dulden, (er)leiden
    12. aushalten, einer Prüfung etc standhalten:
    that doesn’t bear thinking about man darf gar nicht daran denken; → comparison 1, repeat A 1, repetition 1
    13. (meist neg) ausstehen, leiden, einen Gedanken ertragen
    14. eine Nachricht etc überbringen
    15. Gehorsam etc leisten, Lob zollen (to dat):
    bear sb a hand jemandem helfen oder zur Hand gehen; → company A 1
    16. Zeugnis ablegen:
    bear witness ( oder evidence) zeugen (to für)
    17. bear o.s. sich betragen, sich benehmen
    B v/i
    1. tragen, (sicher) halten (Balken, Eis etc)
    2. (on, upon) schwer lasten oder liegen (auf dat), drücken, einen Druck ausüben (auf akk)
    3. (against) drücken, sich lehnen (gegen), anliegen (an dat)
    4. (on, upon)
    a) einwirken, Einfluss haben (auf akk)
    b) sich beziehen, Bezug haben (auf akk), im Zusammenhang stehen (mit), betreffen (akk):
    how does this bear on …? in welchem Zusammenhang steht das mit …?;
    bring to bear (up)on
    a) einwirken lassen auf (akk),
    b) richten oder anwenden auf (akk);
    bear hard on sehr zusetzen (dat), hart treffen, arg mitnehmen (akk); → pressure A 5
    5. eine Richtung einschlagen, sich halten:
    bear (to the) left sich links halten;
    bear to a star FLUG, SCHIFF ein Gestirn anpeilen;
    the beacon bears 240 degrees die Bake liegt bei oder auf 240°
    6. SCHIFF
    a) abfahren, absegeln ( beide:
    to nach)
    b) abfallen
    7. sich erstrecken
    8. bear with Nachsicht haben oder üben mit, (geduldig) ertragen (akk):
    would ( oder could) you bear with me for a second? einen kleinen Augenblick, bitte, TEL auch bleiben Sie bitte einen kleinen Moment am Apparat
    9. BOT (Früchte) tragen
    10. ZOOL tragen, trächtig sein (Tier)
    11. MIL tragen (Geschütz):
    bear on beschießen (akk)
    bear2 [beə(r)]
    A s
    1. ZOOL Bär m:
    he’s like (od umg [as] cross as) a bear with a sore head today er ist heute unausstehlich oder in einer Stinklaune; → hungry A 1
    2. fig
    a) Bär m, Tollpatsch m
    b) Brummbär m, Ekel n pej
    c) US umg Kanone f (at, for in dat)
    3. WIRTSCH Bear m, Baissier m, Baissespekulant(in):
    4. ASTRON
    a) the Greater ( oder Great) Bear der Große Bär
    b) the Lesser ( oder Little) Bear der Kleine Bär
    5. METALL Eisenklumpen m, Bodensau f
    B v/i WIRTSCH auf Baisse spekulieren, fixen
    C v/t bear the market WIRTSCH die Kurse drücken oder zu drücken versuchen
    D adj WIRTSCH
    a) flau (Markt), fallend (Preise)
    b) Baisse…:
    bear campaign Angriff m der Baissepartei;
    bear market Baisse f;
    bear operation Baissespekulation f;
    bear sale Leerverkauf m
    * * *
    I noun
    1) Bär, der
    2) (Astron.)

    Great/Little Bear — Großer/Kleiner Bär

    II 1. transitive verb,
    1) (show) tragen [Wappen, Inschrift, Unterschrift]; aufweisen, zeigen [Merkmal, Spuren, Ähnlichkeit, Verwandtschaft]

    bear a resemblance or likeness to somebody — Ähnlichkeit mit jemandem haben

    2) (be known by) tragen, führen [Namen, Titel]
    3)

    bear some/little relation to something — einen gewissen/wenig Bezug zu etwas haben

    4) (poet./formal): (carry) tragen [Waffe, Last]; mit sich führen [Geschenk, Botschaft]

    I was borne along by the fierce current — die starke Strömung trug mich mit [sich]

    5) (endure, tolerate) ertragen [Schmerz, Kummer]; with neg. aushalten [Schmerz]; ausstehen [Geruch, Lärm, Speise]
    6) (sustain) tragen, übernehmen [Verantwortlichkeit, Kosten]; auf sich (Akk.) nehmen [Schuld]; tragen, aushalten [Gewicht]
    7) (be fit for) vertragen

    it does not bear repeating or repetition — das lässt sich unmöglich wiederholen

    bear comparison with something — den od. einen Vergleich mit etwas aushalten

    8) (give birth to) gebären [Kind, Junges]; see also born
    9) (yield) tragen [Blumen, Früchte usw.]

    bear fruit — (fig.) Früchte tragen (geh.)

    2. intransitive verb,
    bore, borne
    1)

    bear left — [Person:] sich links halten

    2)

    bring to bear — aufbieten [Kraft, Energie]; ausüben [Druck]

    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    (stock exchange) n.
    Börsenspekulant -en m. n.
    Baissier -s m.
    Bär -en m. (on) v.
    betreffen v.
    sich beziehen (auf) v. (to give birth to) v.
    zur Welt bringen ausdr. v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: bore, borne)
    = aushalten v.
    ausstehen v.
    ausüben v.
    ertragen v.
    gebären v.
    (§ p.,pp.: gebar, geboren)
    halten v.
    (§ p.,pp.: hielt, gehalten)
    lasten v.
    tragen v.
    (§ p.,pp.: trug, getragen)

    English-german dictionary > bear

  • 2 Portuguese Communist Party

    (PCP)
       The Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) has evolved from its early anarcho-syndicalist roots at its formation in 1921. This evolution included the undisciplined years of the 1920s, during which bolshevization began and continued into the 1930s, then through the years of clandestine existence during the Estado Novo, the Stalinization of the 1940s, the "anarcho-liberal shift" of the 1950s, the emergence of Maoist and Trotskyist splinter groups of the 1960s, to legalization after the Revolution of 25 April 1974 as the strongest and oldest political party in Portugal. Documents from the Russian archives have shown that the PCP's history is not a purely "domestic" one. While the PCP was born on its own without Soviet assistance, once it joined the Communist International (CI), it lost a significant amount of autonomy as CI officials increasingly meddled in PCP internal politics by dictating policy, manipulating leadership elections, and often financing party activities.
       Early Portuguese communism was a mix of communist ideological strands accustomed to a spirited internal debate, a lively external debate with its rivals, and a loose organizational structure. The PCP, during its early years, was weak in grassroots membership and was basically a party of "notables." It was predominantly a male organization, with minuscule female participation. It was also primarily an urban party concentrated in Lisbon. The PCP membership declined from 3,000 in 1923 to only 40 in 1928.
       In 1929, the party was reorganized so that it could survive clandestinely. As its activity progressed in the 1930s, a long period of instability dominated its leadership organs as a result of repression, imprisonments, and disorganization. The CI continued to intervene in party affairs through the 1930s, until the PCP was expelled from the CI in 1938-39, apparently because of its conduct during police arrests.
       The years of 1939-41 were difficult ones for the party, not only because of increased domestic repression but also because of internal party splits provoked by the Nazi-Soviet pact and other foreign actions. From 1940 to 1941, two Communist parties struggled to attract the support of the CI and accused each other of "revisionism." The CI was disbanded in 1943, and the PCP was not accepted back into the international communist family until its recognition by the Cominform in 1947.
       The reorganization of 1940-41 finally put the PCP under the firm control of orthodox communists who viewed socialism from a Soviet perspective. Although Soviet support was denied the newly reorganized party at first, the new leaders continued its Stalinization. The enforcement of "democratic centralism" and insistence upon the "dictatorship of the proletariat" became entrenched. The 1940s brought increased growth, as the party reached its membership apex of the clandestine era with 1,200 members in 1943, approximately 4,800 in 1946, and 7,000 in 1947.
       The party fell on hard times in the 1950s. It developed a bad case of paranoia, which led to a witch hunt for infiltrators, informers, and spies in all ranks of the party. The lower membership figures who followed the united antifascist period were reduced further through expulsions of the "traitors." By 1951, the party had been reduced to only 1,000 members. It became a closed, sectarian, suspicious, and paranoiac organization, with diminished strength in almost every region, except in the Alentejo, where the party, through propaganda and ideology more than organizational strength, was able to mobilize strikes of landless peasants in the early 1950s.
       On 3 January 1960, Álvaro Cunhal and nine other political prisoners made a spectacular escape from the Peniche prison and fled the country. Soon after this escape, Cunhal was elected secretary-general and, with other top leaders, directed the PCP from exile. Trotskyite and Maoist fractions emerged within the party in the 1960s, strengthened by the ideological developments in the international communist movement, such as in China and Cuba. The PCP would not tolerate dissent or leftism and began purging the extreme left fractions.
       The PCP intensified its control of the labor movement after the more liberal syndical election regulations under Prime Minister Mar- cello Caetano allowed communists to run for leadership positions in the corporative unions. By 1973, there was general unrest in the labor movement due to deteriorating economic conditions brought on by the colonial wars, as well as by world economic pressures including the Arab oil boycott.
       After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, the PCP enjoyed a unique position: it was the only party to have survived the Estado Novo. It emerged from clandestinity as the best organized political party in Portugal with a leadership hardened by years in jail. Since then, despite the party's stubborn orthodoxy, it has consistently played an important role as a moderating force. As even the Socialist Party (PS) was swept up by the neoliberal tidal wave, albeit a more compassionate variant, increasingly the PCP has played a crucial role in ensuring that interests and perspectives of the traditional Left are aired.
       One of the most consistent planks of the PCP electoral platform has been opposition to every stage of European integration. The party has regularly resisted Portuguese membership in the European Economic Community (EEC) and, following membership beginning in 1986, the party has regularly resisted further integration through the European Union (EU). A major argument has been that EU membership would not resolve Portugal's chronic economic problems but would only increase its dependence on the world. Ever since, the PCP has argued that its opposition to membership was correct and that further involvement with the EU would only result in further economic dependence and a consequent loss of Portuguese national sovereignty. Further, the party maintained that as Portugal's ties with the EU increased, the vulnerable agrarian sector in Portugal would risk further losses.
       Changes in PCP leadership may or may not alter the party's electoral position and role in the political system. As younger generations forget the uniqueness of the party's resistance to the Estado Novo, public images of PCP leadership will change. As the image of Álvaro Cunhal and other historical communist leaders slowly recedes, and the stature of Carlos Carvalhas (general secretary since 1992) and other moderate leaders is enhanced, the party's survival and legitimacy have strengthened. On 6 March 2001, the PCP celebrated its 80th anniversary.
        See also Left Bloc.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Portuguese Communist Party

  • 3 De Forest, Lee

    [br]
    b. 26 August 1873 Council Bluffs, Iowa, USA
    d. 30 June 1961 Hollywood, California, USA
    [br]
    American electrical engineer and inventor principally known for his invention of the Audion, or triode, vacuum tube; also a pioneer of sound in the cinema.
    [br]
    De Forest was born into the family of a Congregational minister that moved to Alabama in 1879 when the father became President of a college for African-Americans; this was a position that led to the family's social ostracism by the white community. By the time he was 13 years old, De Forest was already a keen mechanical inventor, and in 1893, rejecting his father's plan for him to become a clergyman, he entered the Sheffield Scientific School of Yale University. Following his first degree, he went on to study the propagation of electromagnetic waves, gaining a PhD in physics in 1899 for his thesis on the "Reflection of Hertzian Waves from the Ends of Parallel Wires", probably the first US thesis in the field of radio.
    He then joined the Western Electric Company in Chicago where he helped develop the infant technology of wireless, working his way up from a modest post in the production area to a position in the experimental laboratory. There, working alone after normal working hours, he developed a detector of electromagnetic waves based on an electrolytic device similar to that already invented by Fleming in England. Recognizing his talents, a number of financial backers enabled him to set up his own business in 1902 under the name of De Forest Wireless Telegraphy Company; he was soon demonstrating wireless telegraphy to interested parties and entering into competition with the American Marconi Company.
    Despite the failure of this company because of fraud by his partners, he continued his experiments; in 1907, by adding a third electrode, a wire mesh, between the anode and cathode of the thermionic diode invented by Fleming in 1904, he was able to produce the amplifying device now known as the triode valve and achieve a sensitivity of radio-signal reception much greater than possible with the passive carborundum and electrolytic detectors hitherto available. Patented under the name Audion, this new vacuum device was soon successfully used for experimental broadcasts of music and speech in New York and Paris. The invention of the Audion has been described as the beginning of the electronic era. Although much development work was required before its full potential was realized, the Audion opened the way to progress in all areas of sound transmission, recording and reproduction. The patent was challenged by Fleming and it was not until 1943 that De Forest's claim was finally recognized.
    Overcoming the near failure of his new company, the De Forest Radio Telephone Company, as well as unsuccessful charges of fraudulent promotion of the Audion, he continued to exploit the potential of his invention. By 1912 he had used transformer-coupling of several Audion stages to achieve high gain at radio frequencies, making long-distance communication a practical proposition, and had applied positive feedback from the Audion output anode to its input grid to realize a stable transmitter oscillator and modulator. These successes led to prolonged patent litigation with Edwin Armstrong and others, and he eventually sold the manufacturing rights, in retrospect often for a pittance.
    During the early 1920s De Forest began a fruitful association with T.W.Case, who for around ten years had been working to perfect a moving-picture sound system. De Forest claimed to have had an interest in sound films as early as 1900, and Case now began to supply him with photoelectric cells and primitive sound cameras. He eventually devised a variable-density sound-on-film system utilizing a glow-discharge modulator, the Photion. By 1926 De Forest's Phonofilm had been successfully demonstrated in over fifty theatres and this system became the basis of Movietone. Though his ideas were on the right lines, the technology was insufficiently developed and it was left to others to produce a system acceptable to the film industry. However, De Forest had played a key role in transforming the nature of the film industry; within a space of five years the production of silent films had all but ceased.
    In the following decade De Forest applied the Audion to the development of medical diathermy. Finally, after spending most of his working life as an independent inventor and entrepreneur, he worked for a time during the Second World War at the Bell Telephone Laboratories on military applications of electronics.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Institute of Electronic and Radio Engineers Medal of Honour 1922. President, Institute of Electronic and Radio Engineers 1930. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Edison Medal 1946.
    Bibliography
    1904, "Electrolytic detectors", Electrician 54:94 (describes the electrolytic detector). 1907, US patent no. 841,387 (the Audion).
    1950, Father of Radio, Chicago: WIlcox \& Follett (autobiography).
    De Forest gave his own account of the development of his sound-on-film system in a series of articles: 1923. "The Phonofilm", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 16 (May): 61–75; 1924. "Phonofilm progress", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 20:17–19; 1927, "Recent developments in the Phonofilm", Transactions of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 27:64–76; 1941, "Pioneering in talking pictures", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 36 (January): 41–9.
    Further Reading
    G.Carneal, 1930, A Conqueror of Space (biography).
    I.Levine, 1964, Electronics Pioneer, Lee De Forest (biography).
    E.I.Sponable, 1947, "Historical development of sound films", Journal of the Society of Motion Picture Engineers 48 (April): 275–303 (an authoritative account of De Forest's sound-film work, by Case's assistant).
    W.R.McLaurin, 1949, Invention and Innovation in the Radio Industry.
    C.F.Booth, 1955, "Fleming and De Forest. An appreciation", in Thermionic Valves 1904– 1954, IEE.
    V.J.Phillips, 1980, Early Radio Detectors, London: Peter Peregrinus.
    KF / JW

    Biographical history of technology > De Forest, Lee

  • 4 Brearley, Harry

    SUBJECT AREA: Metallurgy
    [br]
    b. 18 February 1871 Sheffield, England
    d. 14 July 1948 Torquay, Devon, England
    [br]
    English inventor of stainless steel.
    [br]
    Brearley was born in poor circumstances. He received little formal education and was nurtured rather in and around the works of Thomas Firth \& Sons, where his father worked in the crucible steel-melting shop. One of his first jobs was to help in their chemical laboratory where the chief chemist, James Taylor, encouraged him and helped him fit himself for a career as a steelworks chemist.
    In 1901 Brearley left Firth's to set up a laboratory at Kayser Ellison \& Co., but he returned to Firth's in 1904, when he was appointed Chief Chemist at their Riga works, and Works Manager the following year. In 1907 he returned to Sheffield to design and equip a research laboratory to serve both Firth's and John Brown \& Co. It was during his time as head of this laboratory that he made his celebrated discovery. In 1913, while seeking improved steels for rifle barrels, he used one containing 12.68 per cent chromium and 0.24 per cent carbon, in the hope that it would resist fouling and erosion. He tried to etch a specimen for microscopic examination but failed, from which he concluded that it would resist corrosion by, for example, the acids encountered in foods and cooking. The first knives made of this new steel were unsatisfactory and the 1914–18 war interrupted further research. But eventually the problems were overcome and Brearley's discovery led to a range of stainless steels with various compositions for domestic, medical and industrial uses, including the well-known "18–8" steel, with 18 per cent chromium and 8 per cent nickel.
    In 1915 Brearley left the laboratory to become Works Manager, then Technical Director, at Brown Bayley's steelworks until his retirement in 1925.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Iron and Steel Institute Bessemer Gold Medal 1920.
    Bibliography
    Brearley wrote several books, including: 1915 (?), with F.Ibbotson, The Analysis of Steelworks Materials, London.
    The Heat Treatment of Tool Steels. Ingots and Ingot Moulds.
    Later books include autobiographical details: 1946, Talks on Steelmaking, American Society for Metals.
    1941, Knotted String: Autobiography of a Steelmaker, London: Longmans, Green.
    Further Reading
    Obituary, 1948, Journal of the Iron and Steel Institute: 428–9.
    LRD

    Biographical history of technology > Brearley, Harry

  • 5 Freitas do Amaral, Diogo

    (1941-)
       Legal scholar and teacher, jurist, civil servant, and politician. Born in Povoa de Varzim, Freitas do Amaral's father became a member of parliament in the Estado Novo's National Assembly. A superb student, the young Freitas do Amaral studied law at the Law Faculty, University of Lisbon, and became the top law student and protégé of Professor Marcello Caetano, who in 1968 was selected to replace an ailing Antônio de Oliveira Salazar as prime minister. Freitas do Amaral received his doctorate in law in the late 1960s and remained close to his former law professor, who was now prime minister. In his scholarship on the history of Portuguese law, as well as in his political and social ideology as a conservative, Freitas do Amaral in many respects remained a student, protégé, and follower of Caetano through the period of Caetano's premiership (1968-74) and into the era of the Revolution of 25 April 1974. More than 20 years later, Freitas do Amaral published his memoirs, which focused on the 1968-74 political era, O Antigo Regime E A Revolução. Memórias Políticas ( 1941-75). This personal portrait of Caetano's tribulations as a sometimes reluctant, well-prepared but probably inappropriately selected national leader remains an invaluable primary source for historical reconstruction.
       During the early months after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Freitas do Amaral entered politics and became a founder of the right-wing Christian Democratic Party (CDS). He served as the party's leader to 1985 and again from 1988 to 1991, and was a member of parliament, the Assembly of the Republic, from 1975 to 1983 and from 1992 to 1993. When the Democratic Alliance, of which the CDS was a part, won elections in 1979-80, Freitas do Amaral served as deputy prime minister and minister of defense and, when Francisco de Sá Carneiro died in a mysterious air crash, Freitas do Amaral briefly served as interim prime minister. He was a candidate for the presidency in the 1986 presidential election, although he lost to Mário Soares. In 1995, he served as President of the United Nations General Assembly. As a European federalist who disagreed with the CDS Euroskeptic line followed by Paulo Portas, Freitas do Amaral broke with his party and resigned from it. Although he was usually regarded as a right-winger, Freitas do Amaral backed the Social Democratic Party in the 2002 Assembly of the Republic elections. Disillusioned with the government's policies and critical of its endorsement of the U.S. invasion of Iraq in March 2003, Freitas do Amaral shifted his support to the Socialist Party in the 2005 election. The new prime minister José Sôcrates named Freitas do Amaral minister of foreign affairs in the XVII Constitutional Government, but the senior jurist and politician resigned after a year in office, for health reasons.
       After many years as a law professor at the New University of Lisbon, in 2007, Freitas do Amaral delivered a final public lecture and retired from academia. He is the author of a biography of King Afonso I, a play, and of various legal and juridical studies and is considered the most eminent living scholar in the fields of administrative and constitutional law.

    Historical dictionary of Portugal > Freitas do Amaral, Diogo

  • 6 Morris, William Richard, Viscount Nuffield

    [br]
    b. 10 October 1877 Worcester, England
    d. 22 August 1963 Nuffield Place, England
    [br]
    English industrialist, car manufacturer and philanthropist.
    [br]
    Morris was the son of Frederick Morris, then a draper. He was the eldest of a family of seven, all of whom, except for one sister, died in childhood. When he was 3 years old, his father moved to Cowley, near Oxford, where he attended the village school. After a short time with a local bicycle firm he set up on his own at the age of 16 with a capital of £4. He manufactured pedal cycles and by 1902 he had designed a motor cycle and was doing car-repair work. By 1912, at the Motor Show, he was able to announce his first car, the 8.9 hp, two-seater Morris Oxford with its characteristic "bull-nose". It could perform at up to 50 mph (80 km/h) and 50 mpg (5.65 1/100 km). It cost £165.
    Though untrained, Morris was a born engineer as well as a natural judge of character. This enabled him to build up a reliable team of assistants in his growing business, with an order for four hundred cars at the Motor Show in 1912. Much of his business was built up in the assembly of components manufactured by outside suppliers. In he moved out of his initial premises by New College in Longwall and bought land at Cowley, where he brought out his second model, the 11.9hp Morris Oxford. This was after the First World War, during which car production was reduced to allow the manufacture of tanks and munitions. He was awarded the OBE in 1917 for his war work. Morris Motors Ltd was incorporated in 1919, and within fifteen months sales of cars had reached over 3,000 a year. By 1923 he was producing 20,000 cars a year, and in 1926 50,000, equivalent to about one-third of Britain's output. With the slump, a substantial overdraft, and a large stock of unsold cars, Morris took the bold decision to cut the prices of cars in stock, which then sold out within three weeks. Other makers followed suit, but Morris was ahead of them.
    Morris was part-founder of the Pressed Steel Company, set up to produce car bodies at Cowley. A clever operation with the shareholding of the Morris Motors Company allowed Morris a substantial overall profit to provide expansion capital. By 1931 his "empire" comprised, in addition to Morris Motors, the MG Car Company, the Wolseley Company, the SU Carburettor Company and Morris Commercial Cars. In 1936, the value of Morris's financial interest in the business was put at some £16 million.
    William Morris was a frugal man and uncomplicated, having little use for all the money he made except to channel it to charitable purposes. It is said that in all he gave away some £30 million during his lifetime, much of it invested by the recipients to provide long-term benefits. He married Elizabeth Anstey in 1904 and lived for thirty years at Nuffield Place. He lived modestly, and even after retirement, when Honorary President of the British Motor Corporation, the result of a merger between Morris Motors and the Austin Motor Company, he drove himself to work in a modest 10 hp Wolseley. His generosity benefited many hospitals in London, Oxford, Birmingham and elsewhere. Oxford Colleges were another class of beneficiary from his largesse.
    [br]
    Principal Honours and Distinctions
    Viscount 1938; Baron (Lord Nuffield) 1934; Baronet 1929; OBE 1917; GBE 1941; CH 1958. FRS 1939. He was a doctor of seven universities and an honorary freeman of seven towns.
    Further Reading
    R.Jackson, 1964, The Nuffield Story.
    P.W.S.Andrews and E.Brunner, The Life of Lord Nuffield.
    IMcN

    Biographical history of technology > Morris, William Richard, Viscount Nuffield

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